– Home page – Brugge
– Tunisia
– Cairo
– Georgia
– Co Kerry
– Co Kerry Flora
– Cyprus Flora
– Bellapais Abbey
– Kyrenia Castle
– Shipwreck Museum
– Sunsets in Cyprus
– Fabrika Hill Excavations
– The Villa of Theseus
– Tomb of the Kings
– Xanten
– Arnhem

– Home page – Brugge – Tunisia – Cairo – Georgia – Co Kerry – Co Kerry Flora – Cyprus Flora – Bellapais Abbey – Kyrenia Castle – Shipwreck Museum – Sunsets in Cyprus – Fabrika Hill Excavations – The Villa of Theseus – Tomb of the Kings – Xanten – Arnhem

Tomb of the Kings, Kato Paphos, Cyprus

– Home page – Brugge – Tunisia – Cairo – Georgia – Co Kerry – Co Kerry Flora – Cyprus Flora – Bellapais Abbey – Kyrenia Castle – Shipwreck Museum – Sunsets in Cyprus – Fabrika Hill Excavations – The Villa of Theseus – Tomb of the Kings – Xanten – Arnhem

Tunisia

All the veterans were among the 16,500 paratropos and 3,500 troops in gliders who were dropped into Arnhem in the Netherlands for the Operation Market Garden on September 17, 1944.

It was the biggest airborne campaign in history and aimed for US, British and Polish airborne troops to seize eight strategic bridges around Arnhem and Nijmegen.

If successful the daring plan could have ended the Second World War by Christmas, 1944.

But unexpected German resistance, bad weather, poor radio communications and lack of ammunition meant the operation failed amidst vast loss of life.

Nearly 6,000 from the 1st Airborne Division were captured after Arnhem and 1,750 were killed.

– Home page – Brugge – Tunisia – Cairo – Georgia – Co Kerry – Co Kerry Flora – Cyprus Flora – Bellapais Abbey – Kyrenia Castle – Shipwreck Museum – Sunsets in Cyprus – Fabrika Hill Excavations – The Villa of Theseus – Tomb of the Kings – Xanten – Arnhem

Images from County Kerry

– Home page – Brugge – Tunisia – Cairo – Georgia – Co Kerry – Co Kerry Flora – Cyprus Flora – Bellapais Abbey – Kyrenia Castle – Shipwreck Museum – Sunsets in Cyprus – Fabrika Hill Excavations – The Villa of Theseus – Tomb of the Kings – Xanten – Arnhem

Bellapais Abbey, Northern Cyprus (Turkish Occupied Territory)

As part of Scottish Archaeology Month, Glasgow Archaeological Society organised tours of Govan Old Parish Church and Glasgow Cathedral on Saturday 22nd September 2001. It being more than 20 years since I had last visited the Cathedral, and never having been to the Govan Church, I decided to avail myself of this opportunity.

I made the decision to visit Govan first, and so at 1.45pm I found myself walking up a leafy approach which, to my surprise, took me away from the hustle and bustle of a busy Saturday in the Glasgow suburb. Inside there was a warm welcome from one of the ladies of the congregation, and an invitation to have a look around until the tour was due to start. At 2 o’clock we were introduced to Dr. Stephen Driscoll, a lecturer at Glasgow University, who took us back outside the Church door and explained that he had been involved in most of the digging that had taken place in the Church area (we all know who else was involved!). He showed us an area along one of the paths which was rather sunken, and said that it was one of his trenches which hadn’t been backfilled properly (some of the group of about 20 listeners moved rather quickly!).

Dr. Driscoll then invited us to look at the churchyard wall, and to observe that it was curved around the church, rather than the more usual square, or rectangle. This is reckoned to be a sign of a very early Christian site. In fact the enclosure is not circular, but is rather pear-shaped with the stalk of the pear to the S.E and excavation has shown that it is likely that the original entrance would have been at the point of the wall. Of course the present wall is relatively modern, and another of Dr. Driscoll’s excavations was undertaken to establish the history of the enclosure. A trench was dug close to the present gateway and revealed an outer ditch had provided earth to build a bank that would have defined the sacred area. A third area excavated by Dr. Driscoll’s team was one that ordinarily would not have been available around a church. In the case of Govan the search for the earliest building on the site was facilitated by the fact that the current mid-19th century building goes against normal practice and is aligned N-S leaving an area to the east that could be dug. Here digging discovered early foundations and E-W aligned burials which rank amongst the earliest Christian burials anywhere in Scotland.

Dr. Driscoll told us that he believes two major events in Scotland’s history have a direct and discernible effect on the religious site at Govan. The first was the fact that in 870 the Vikings sacked the royal fortress of Strathclyde at Dumbarton, and nothing more is heard of it in the records for a considerable period of time. It is Dr. Driscoll’s contention that the royal court thereafter moved to Govan, and he showed us several pieces of convincing supporting evidence. To see the first we walked away from the Church for a couple of hundred yards to where a busy outdoor market was taking place. The market is sited on what was once known as Doomster Hill, though there is very little rise to be seen today. Excavations here have shown it to have been an artificial mound which originally rose some 5m above the land around it. Interestingly, the original entrance at the “pear-stalk” of the enclosure points straight towards the mound and may have formed part of a processional way. If the kings of Strathclyde were in fact based here in Govan the mound would have been the place were the royal court sat in judgement and where sentences, or “dooms”, were pronounced.

We then walked back to the church and went inside to see the collection of early Christian sculptures. In Scotland only St. Andrews and Iona have larger collections, which must mean that this Church was of great importance in the past. The earliest of the sculptures are the five hogback graves, which range from c900 to c1000. Some people think that they look like upturned boats, but in fact they are intended to represent houses with tiled roofs. Such gravestones occur in areas of Viking settlement in Britain. The next group of carved stones are the four cross-shafts, and again Govan is unusual in the number it has; comparable numbers are only found in major religious centres like Kells and Clonmacnoise. The third group is the recumbent gravestones (now confusingly set upright along the aisle walls). Again they are here in huge numbers, and the question is whether this represents ecclesiastical or religious importance? Dr. Driscoll believes that no other religious site has anything like these numbers.

Finally there is a stone sarcophagus, the only monolithic coffin from Scotland, and only one other is known from Britain. It was found buried in the churchyard (minus its lid, and any former contents) in the 1850s. However it is clear from the quality of its carved decoration that it was never intended to be buried, it was intended to be seen and venerated by visitors. The main image does not appear to be ecclesiastical. It is a warrior on horseback accompanied by animals that may be interpreted as deer and dogs. Dr. Driscoll believes it to be a hunting scene, but unfortunately art historians differ in their opinion as to its period, dating it variously between 900 and 1100. What is clear, is that all the sculptures date up to about 1100, and that there is nothing that can be dated later. This ties in with the other major Scottish historical episode that Dr. Driscoll believes influenced events at Govan. Between 1114 and 1118, King David I of Scotland, having newly acquired the kingdom of Strathclyde and incorporated it into his own domain, established the Cathedral at Glasgow. It is as if he wanted a new religious centre which had no connection with the former rulers of the area, and afterwards Govan seems to sink into obscurity.

Our tour over, some of the ladies of the congregation served up tea and home-made cakes to the group, and we also had the opportunity to watch a 10 minute video history which included footage of Tony Robinson explaining that it is sites like Govan that attract him to archaeology.

Valerie Reilly

	Link to the official  Friends of Govan Old website – lists all 40 stones with images by Alligator Descartes
	From the Archaeoptics site details of the massive Govan 12 Hogback recumbent grave monument
The Modern Pictish Stones of Barry Grove	This site shows the replica stonework created by Barry Grove including the ‘Govan’ Stone done for the Time Team Programme

17th century L plan structure with angle turrets and a circular stair tower in the re-entrant angle. There are unusual twin gables at roof level. 3 storeys high with an attic – the walls are harled and whitewashed. A Georgian two storey and attic wing was added around 1805. In Rob Roy’s day the Laird of Aberuchill still thought it prudent to pay the outlaw “mail” or protection money despite the fact that he was Lord Justice Clerk to ensure his cattle wouldnt be stolen! His son Sir James Campbell stopped paying this protection money and Rob Roy himself arrived at Aberuchill during a dinner party forcing Sir James to pay the traditional premium.

– home page – home – pre roman cantiaci – background in Gaul – caesar 55bc – caesar 54bc – between the invasions – cassius dio – 43ad invasion – 43ad the legions – 43ad landing site – claudius arrives – conclusion – bibliography – Dig Diary – introduction – Icon – Hillfigures – Netley Abbey – pyrford church – compton church – farleigh church – wisley church – hoylte – Sound Mirrors – Warden’s Bay – Surrey regiments – Cinque Ports – Images of Essex – Maiden Castle – Sixpenny Handley – Minchington – A Neolithic cathedral? – St Osyth – Olivers Farm – Pickett Farm – Grace Dieu – Roman Circus – Roman Circus finds – Roman Circus images – Colchester images Last updated March 20, 2005

Images of Essex

When attempting to provide a narrative of the advent of the Romano-British period, it is necessary to look at the Classical sources, whether or not they can be relied upon. They provide the only written record of events, which were to alter irrevocably, the history, the future of the British Isles. It is the intention of this narrative however, not simply to repeat what is, seemingly accepted by the majority of people, but to bring it up to date, as far as current theories, archaeology, and research will permit.  The Classical sources are without doubt very useful tools, somewhere to start looking for the answers to the questions: what happened, why did events happen as they did, when did they happen, and where did they happen. It is necessary also, to provide the scenario, the backdrop of the Britain upon which, the might of the Roman legions was about to fall, bringing to a close that period called ‘Prehistoric’, ‘Iron-age’, ‘the time of the Barbarians.’ The Classical sources available to the scholar, include, Caesar’s Gallic Wars, the Annals and Histories of Tacitus, Strabo’s Geographica, Cassius Dio, and Suetonius’s biographies, all of which provide aspects, which are relevant here.

Although it is accepted by many that Britain was a Celtic country, that term in it-self, is now considered to be an over generalisation. There were many cultural, religious, artistic and blood links between the peoples of Britain, and the peoples of continental Europe, Gaul in particular. However, each people, each tribe, was a culture unto itself also, each with it’s own distinctive identity. The main arena of the events about to unfold, is the parts of the British Isles, which are now the counties of Kent and East Sussex, on the south coast, and which have the river Thames to their north together with those parts which bordered the northern bank of the Thames. 

Politically, in the 1^st century before Christ, the area along the south coast was an area in turmoil. There had begun, another invasion, during the 1^st century B.C., that of the Belgaei, it was they who became the warlords, the chieftains, the overlords, they stamped their culture on the southern tribes, among them, though to what extent is unclear, were the Cantiaci. They were however, far from the barbarians the Romans reported them as. They did perhaps live a simpler way of life, one more in-tune with the land upon which they lived, more in-tune with the seasons of the year, but as disciplined, in their own way, as the budding Empire of Rome.   

The land was cultivated to a large degree, crops such as emmer and spelt wheat, barley, rye, and oats were harvested, the land was ploughed by an extinct breed of cattle called ‘bos longifrons’. 

Celtic beans (Vicia faba minor) were grown, also ‘Fat Hen’(Chenopodium album); vetch for cattle fodder, and woad (Isatis tinctoria) as a dye plant.  Small ‘Soay’ sheep grazed the uplands, providing meat and wool, pigs too were a major part of their diet, as were the huge herds of cattle.

Their trained hunting dogs were heard of, even in Rome. Horses were bred, but not according to the archaeological record, for draught work, they were, it seems, bred solely for martial activities, such as hunting, and the driving of war chariots, each chariot requiring a team of two horses to pull them. All of this points to a sophisticated society, one capable of efficient husbandry and agriculture. Compared to the populous cities of Rome, the British lived in farmsteads, and small family groups of their round houses, wattle and daub walled with conical thatched roofs, dotted the landscape.

A few more major settlements existed, some tribal ‘capitals’ have been given the title of citvitas, which, after the conquest, were utilised by the Romans as locations for some of their major settlements. The Belgic civitas of the Cantiaci, was, (in Latin) Durovernum Cantiacorum, a name preserved to this day, as Canterbury. Hill-forts, of an earlier period formed their main defences in times of intertribal conflict.

Recent archaeology has discovered much about the life style of pre-Roman Britain, but many questions have still to be answered. Decorative metalwork too shows of British artistic expressionism and ability, works in bronze, iron, and gold, some of enormous richness and craftsmanship have been excavated and discovered.

Across the English Channel, an altogether different opinion of the native Britons was being formulated by Gaius Julius Caesar. He had been heavily engaged battling with the Germanic tribes by the River Rhine, and, by the late summer of 55B.C., he was taking an interest in the mysterious island visible from Gaul. He drew upon the knowledge of traders, (who must have had their own agenda) and in his illuminating work, ‘The Gallic Wars’, he said of the Britons thus : 

caes.gal.5.12 
“The interior portion of Britain is inhabited by those whom they say that is handed down by tradition that they were born in the island itself: the maritime portion by those who had passed over from the country of the Belgae for the purpose of plunder and making war; almost all of whom are called by the names of the states from which being sprung they went thither, and having waged war, continued there and began to cultivate the lands. The number of people is countless, and their buildings exceedingly numerous, for the most part very like those of the Gauls: the number of cattle is great. They use either brass or iron rings, determined at a certain weight as their money. Tin is produced in the midlands regions; in the maritime, iron, but the quantity of it is small; they employ brass, which is imported. There, as in Gaul, is timber of every description, except beech and fir. They do not regard it lawful to eat hare, and the cock, and the goose; they, however, breed them for amusement and pleasure. The climate is more temperate than in Gaul, the cold being less severe.”  

The concept of Belgic migration, be it for ‘plunder and making war’ or other reasons, is not the easiest to grasp. Frere says that it was an ethnic not a tribal title. Their influence spread over much of the south coast, though actual colonisation may have been restricted to the more central parts, from Hampshire, to Wiltshire. It does seem, from Caesar’s writings at least, that the Cantiaci, were a people who were willing to trade, and to some extent embrace the trappings of a rapacious Rome.

caes.gal.5.14, 
“The most civilised of all these nations are those who inhabit Kent, which is entirely a maritime district, nor do they differ much from the Gallic customs. Most of the inland inhabitants do not grow corn, but live on milk and flesh, and are clad in skins. All the Britons, indeed, dye themselves with woad, which occasions a bluish colour, and thereby have a more terrible appearance in fight. They wear their hair long, and have every part of their body shaved except their head and upper lip. Ten and even twelve have wives common to them, and particularly brothers among brothers, and parents among their children, but if they have any issue by these wives, they are reputed to be the children of those by whom respectively each was first espoused when a virgin.”  

It has been said that Celtic, Gaulic, British, warriors took the heads of their vanquished enemies, and presented them as trophies, that they took slaves, and sacrificed humans and that that behaviour is evidence of their barbarism. Evidence for the latter certainly exists across the Iron-age Celtic cultures. Bodies have survived, mummified, in peat bogs from Denmark, England, Wales, Germany, Holland and even Scandinavia. This on the face of it seems a terrible fate for anyone to endure, but when such actions are criticised by Romans, who were regaled and entertained by the pseudo-ritualistic slaughter of men killing men, and women killing women, under the title of Gladiatorial Combat, it seems slightly hypocritical. Even today, atrocities of the worst kind are enacted all over the world, by so-called civilised societies. Certainly, life in iron-age Britain was far from easy, and less than secure, but their way of life was their own, it was their identity. It was soon to be lost, forever. Guiding their path’s through the mysteries of life and death were the Druids. Little can be said of these people, their way of life, beliefs, even their appearance. They wrote nothing down, they recorded nothing, everything, every mystery was passed presumably by the telling of stories, time-remembered folk memories. Hated by the Romans in Gaul, hunted, harried and killed when found, many Druids that survived made their way across the water to Britain during the 1^st century B.C. and the 50 years thereafter. Whatever is currently portrayed as being Druidic is a fake, a fabrication, Victorian revival romanticism, nothing more. Their temples were the trees, groves, springs, rivers, ponds, bogs, they needed no monumental marble columns, they had the land its-self.

This then was the Britain, or one vision of it, which existed before the arrival of the Legions, it may seem fanciful, it may seem sanitised, that was not the intention, the intention was to try and use the Romans own chronicles, but to interpret them, and the current archaeological record, into a view of what might have been. What actually was, we may never know for certain.

by Corinne Mills and Richard Hayton